Installation of windows in brick masonry walls need to be carried out properly in order to avoid faults and subsequent failure of walls or deflection of windows which may lead to their malfunction. Generally, window placement in openings which are created during building construction is easy since all necessary precautions such as transferring of loads […]
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Installing windows in concrete wall is sometimes required when the function of certain spaces is varied or lights are required in garages or basements. It is necessary to conduct the work properly and according to the applicable codes in addition to consult structural engineer to ensure proper transfer of loads above the window during making […]
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The bearing capacity of soil is influenced by many factors for instance soil strength, foundation width and depth, soil weight and surcharge, and spacing between foundations. These factors are related to the loads exerted on the soil and considerably affect the bearing capacity. Apart from the above factors, there are number of non-load related factors […]
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Stones are derived from the rocks which are naturally occurred as the portion of earth’s crust. Each rock has a different chemical composition and exhibits different properties. Some of these rocks are widely used in the construction industry. Some commonly used building stones along with their properties and uses are explained in this article. Commonly […]
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The degree of accuracy used in the estimation of various material quantities used in the construction is crucial. This is to prevent cost estimate errors due to lack of proper accuracy and time consuming because of considering great accuracy which is not practical. Degree of Accuracy in Estimating Construction Works The accuracy considered in preparing […]
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Timber is naturally occurring material and it is used for several engineering purposes. The timber used for various purposes should be of quality. But, not all the trees produce good quality timber. There are some factors based on which good timber is characterized. Characteristics of Good Timber A timber is said to be good based […]
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Factors of safety for bearing capacity is a value which is established based on the type of soil, method of exploration, level of uncertainty in soil, importance of structure and consequences of failure, and likelihood of design load occurrence. So, it provides enough room to accommodate uncertainties and possible over loading during life span of […]
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The important parameters related to shrinkage limit in soil engineering are shrinkage index, shrinkage limit, volumetric shrinkage, and linear shrinkage. Each parameter is briefly explained in this article. 1. Shrinkage Index ( Is ) The numerical difference between the liquid limit ( wl ) and the shrinkage limit ( ws ) is called as shrinkage […]
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Water tanks made of ferrocement are used widely in many parts of the world to store water for domestic, stock, irrigation and industrial purposes. Ferrocement (also called as Ferro-concrete) consists of a cement-rich mortar applied on both sides of a thin layer of wire mesh and closely spaced thin steel rods. Advantages of Ferrocement Ferrocement […]
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A column is a vertical member which transfers the loads from beam to foundation whereas a floating column is a vertical member which transfers the load from beam to another beam. The load transfer in any building is usually from slab to beams to columns and then foundation. But a floating column, instead of transferring […]
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Soil suction is defined as the state of the soil when it is under reduced pressure. It is measured in terms of the height of the water column (h) suspended in the soil. The main features and factors affecting soil suction are explained briefly. Soil Suction Formula The soil suction can be represented as common […]
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The suction in soil mass can be measured mainly by three methods namely Tensiometer method, Suction Plate method and Centrifuge Method. Each method is briefly explained below. 1. Tensiometer Method The figure-1 below shows the arrangement of tensiometer to determine the suction present in the soil sample. The arrangement consists of a porous pot which […]
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Sand bath method is a field method conducted to determine the water content of the soil. This method is fast but the result is not as accurate as the oven-dry method. Also Read: Determination of water content by oven dry and pycnometer method The procedure and calculation employed in the sand bath method to determine […]
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Damper systems are designed and manufactured to protect structural integrities, controlling structural damages, and prevent injuries to the residents by absorbing seismic energy and reducing deformations in the structure. So, seismic dampers permit the structure to resist severe input energy and reduce harmful deflections, forces and accelerations to structures and occupants. There are several types […]
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Reinforced concrete structures and steel structures follow a similar load transfer method but they differ in several factors like material, construction, load carrying capacity, durability, etc. One of the important difference is that the former uses concrete and the latter employs steel for their construction. Some of the important differences shown by RC structures and […]
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High performance concrete (HPC) is produced in order to meet several requirements which are crucial for a successful construction of buildings in special circumstances. The performance requirements of HPC may involve improvement of concrete placement and compaction without segregation, longterm mechanical properties, early age strength, toughness, volume stability, and service life. HPC is an engineered […]
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Indoor wall claddings are available in several types from normal wooden panels to 3D wall panels. Their types differ in material, texture and dimension. Some of the common indoor wall cladding types are wood cladding, steel cladding, stone cladding, etc. Important types of indoor wall cladding available in the market are mentioned and explained below. […]
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Different types of lime used in construction are Quick Lime, Slaked Lime, Fat Lime and Hydraulic Lime. These are obtained by the process of calcination of natural limestone over a temperature of 900-degree Celsius. Every form of lime is highly versatile and is used in environmental, construction, chemical and metallurgical industries. Types of lime and […]
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Applications of Reinforced Concrete is mainly due to its versatility, adaptability and resistance to fire and corrosion resulting in negligible maintenance costs.
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Deleterious materials in aggregate are those substances which detrimentally effect the fresh and hardened properties of concrete for instance strength, workability, and long-term performance of the concrete in which such are used. Deleterious materials and highly undesirable constituents. Organic impurities, clay, silt and crushed dust, salts, unsound particles, and alkali aggregate reactions. Adverse effects of […]
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Alkali aggregate reactions (AAR) occurs when aggregate in concrete reacts with the alkali hydroxides in concrete producing a hygroscopic gel which, when moisture present, absorbs water and causes expansion and cracking over a period of many years. This alkali-aggregate reaction has two forms namely: alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). The former is of […]
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Alkali aggregate reactions (AAR) occurs when aggregate in concrete reacts with the alkali hydroxides in concrete producing a hygroscopic gel which, when moisture present, absorbs water and causes expansion and cracking over a period of many years. This alkali-aggregate reaction has two forms namely: alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). The former is of […]
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Penetration resistance tests on concrete offers a means of determining relative strengths of concrete in the same structure or different structures.
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The five important volumetric relationships used in soil engineering are void ratio, porosity, percentage air voids, degree of saturation and air content. Each relation is mentioned and explained briefly in this article. 1. Void Ratio Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids. It is […]
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The specification of final year project topics may have main influence on the future job or carrier of students. So, it is crucial to select apt topic since students are going to do great and extensive research about it, it is possible that such topic would be the field of higher education. In this article, […]
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Torsion balance method is one of the methods that determine the water content of the soil rapidly. The method employs an infrared lamp and torsion balance moisture to determine the moisture content rapidly and with high accuracy. The test apparatus and procedure are explained briefly. Apparatus for Torsion Balance Method The two main requirements for […]
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Tapes are used in surveying to take liner measurements. They are available in different lengths and of different materials. 5 common types of tapes used in surveying are discussed below. Types of Tapes Used in Surveying There are 5 types of tapes are available in surveying for linear measurements and they are as follows. Linen […]
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Road users have an important role in traffic. They take up the role of driver, pedestrians, cycles etc. The physical, mental and psychological factors are the main road user characteristics that govern the safe operation of the vehicle on the road. Below described are the important road user characteristics studied in traffic engineering. Road User […]
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Influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at a specific point in a member as a concentrated force moves over the member. It is important in the design of a structure that resist large live loads moving along the span such as bridges and cranes. Either tabulated method and […]
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Be it the season with extreme heat, extreme cold or inclement rains, Civil Engineers should be accustomed to fight all kinds of seasonal fluctuations. Different seasons come with different impediments for the constructor which are necessary to be dodged with smart tricks and tips. Concreting in rainy season is one such impediment which can be […]
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Glazing is a process of providing a glassy layer on the surface of clay product or ceramics. The glazing layer is fused to a ceramic body by burning at high temperature. The thickness of glazing is generally about 0.1 to 0.2 mm. Different methods of glazing and uses of glazing are explained below. Uses of […]
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Relative density is defined as the ratio of difference of void ratios of cohesionless soil in its loosest state and the natural state (emax – e) to the difference between void ratio in its loosest and densest states (emax – emin). Relative density determines the compactness of the cohesionless soil. The determination of relative density […]
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Pile foundation is a long or slender column that is constructed from materials like reinforced concrete or steel. It is a type of deep foundation which is used to support the structure and transfer the load at desired depth either by end bearing or skin friction. Commonly, pile foundations are designed, constructed, and tested based […]
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Architectural concrete construction needs special care in selection of the concrete materials, forming, placing, and finishing in order to achieve the designated architectural appearance. Architectural concrete is permanently exposed to view on surfaces of completed structures or building that is why its construction required such care and attention. There are various architectural concrete surface finishes […]
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The concrete frame construction is a type of construction method which comprises a network of columns and beams to transfer the loads coming on the structure to the foundation successfully. Wholistically it forms a structural skeleton for the building which is used to support the other members such as Floors, Roof, Walls, and Claddings. In […]
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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen demand(BOD) are the two main characteristic properties that indicate the strength of sewage. Both the parameters tests the oxygen-demanding strength of the wastewaters. The basic features of COD, BOD and their basic differences are explained below. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) The amount of oxygen that is required for […]
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Water demand has to be determined in order to design a proper water work project. Water is required mainly for residential, institutional, industrial and public uses. The different types of water demands and their variations are briefly described below. Types of Water Demands Water demands can be classified into: Domestic Water Demand Industrial Water Demand […]
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Transported soil is weathered soil deposits that are transported from one place to another by natural agents like wind, water, and glaciers. Based on this there are wind-deposited soils, water deposited soil and glacier deposited soils. Brief description on different transported soil deposits and their features are explained below: 1. Water Deposited Soils Water forms […]
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Rock reinforcements are additional supports provided to the rock structures to improve its stability and load carrying capacity. Rock reinforcement utilizes the inherent property of the rock structures to behave like a self-supporting single unit. The rock reinforcement can be provided in the form of rock bolts, rock anchors or rock dowels. The need and […]
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Straw bale construction is a sustainable construction technique that uses bales or bundles of straw as the main construction element. Straw bales can be used as a load-bearing or a non-load bearing component in a building. Straw bales can be designed as a load-bearing structure to withstand lateral and shear resistance imposed by wind and […]
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Groundwater is an important natural resource. The precipitation infiltrates into the ground and travels down until it reaches impervious stratum and there it will be stored as groundwater. It is stored in the pores present geological formations such as soil, rock, sand, etc. Types of Geological Formations of Groundwater There are four Different types of […]
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The building structural components constructed above the ground level constitutes the superstructure. The basic components of a building’s superstructure are columns, beams, slab and wall. These components safely transfer the dead loads, live and other loads safely to the below foundation. Mentioned below are the basic components a building’s superstructure. Roof Parapet Lintels Slab Beams […]
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