10 Causes of Earthquake Damages in Unreinforced Masonry Buildings

There are several weaknesses that may cause the failure of unreinforced masonry structure during earthquakes. These weaknesses are design and construction errors which should be considered and addressed during the design and construction of such structure. The main weaknesses in unreinforced masonry design and construction that lead to extensive seismic damage are inadequate brick unit, […]

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What are the Four Virtues of Earthquake Resistant Buildings?

There are four virtues that any earthquake resistant buildings should have to a certain extent in order to withstand designated seismic forces. The virtues of earthquake resistant buildings are structural configurations, lateral strength of the building, adequate stiffness, and ductility. In order to achieve these invaluable characteristics and construct earthquake resistant structures, both structural engineer […]

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I.S Codes on Earthquake Resistant Building Design

Earthquake resistant building design guidelines are provided by set of Indian Standard codes (IS Codes). After observing Indian earthquakes for several years Bureau of Indian Standard has divided the country into five zones depending upon the severity of earthquake. The list of Indian codes for earthquake design of structures include IS 1893–2002, IS 4928–1993, IS […]

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English Bond and Flemish Bond – Features & Difference

English bond and Flemish bond are the two most common brick masonry patterns used in wall construction. A brick construction pattern with alternate courses of brick laid as stretchers and headers forms an English bond. A flemish bond is a brick construction pattern that consists of alternate stretchers and headers for each course. Also Read: […]

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What is the Difference Between Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquake?

Magnitude and intensity measure various characteristics of earthquake. The former measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake. However, the latter measures the strength of shaking generated by the earthquake at a certain location. The magnitude of earthquake is determined from measurements on seismographs, whereas the intensity is determined from effects on people, human […]

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Test for Setting Times of Concrete Mixture Based on ASTM C403M-16

The penetration resistance test used for the determination of initial and final setting time of concrete mixture in laboratory and project site, and the effects of variables, such as water content; type and amount of cementitious material; or admixtures, upon the time of setting of concrete. The test is conducted on a sample of sieved […]

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What is the Whole Bearing System (WBS) and Quadrantal Bearing System (QBS) in Surveying?

The whole bearing system (WBS) and Quadrantal Bearing system (QBS) are two notations of bearings that are used in compass surveying. The WCB system can be converted to QBS or vice versa by a simple calculation. Different bearings used in surveying and designation of bearings (WCB and QB system) are briefly explained in the article. […]

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Magnetic Compass Used in Surveying -Principles & Types

The compass surveying is performed by means of a magnetic compass which helps to determine the angles and the direction of the survey lines. The main two types of magnetic compass employed are a prismatic compass and a surveyor compass. The theory behind the magnetic compass and its types are briefly explained. Principle of Magnetic […]

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What is Fire Resistance of Concrete? Mechanism, and Influencing Factors

Fire resistance of concrete is the ability of concrete to withstand fire or to give protection against fire. This involves the ability of concrete structural element to continue perform a specific structural function or confine fire or both. The duration of time that an element such as beam, column, wall, floor, or roof can endure […]

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Erros in Chaining – Types and Causes

The errors formed in chaining can be either cumulative error and compensating error. The errors can be considered either as a negative value or positive value depending on whether the result is a higher value or smaller value. Cumulative Error and Compensating Error The error that occurs during the chaining process in the same direction […]

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Incorrect Chaining in Surveying – Error & Correction

If the chain that is employed for measuring length is not equal to the true length, then the length measured won’t be correct. This measurement hence requires correction. A chain that is very long, gives a distance that is lesser in value. This means the error is negative and the correction is positive. A chain […]

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What is Ranging? Direct and Indirect Ranging

The process of fixing or establishing intermediate points to facilitate measurement of the survey lines are called as Ranging. The intermediate points are located by means of ranging rodes, offset rods and ranging poles. Ranging Out Survey Lines While measuring the survey lines, the chain or the tape has to be stretched along the survey […]

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Bulk Density and Void Percentage Test for Aggregates

The bulk density and void percentage of aggregate can be evaluated using standard test methods of applicable codes such as ASTM C 29/C29M-17a, IS: 2386 (Part 3) – 1963, or BS 812-2:1995. The procedure provided in this article is based on the specification of ASTM standard ( ASTM C 29/C29M-17a). The bulk density or unit […]

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How the Ground Shakes During Earthquakes?

Ground shaking is the consequence of movement of seismic waves, which ranges from quite gentle in small earthquakes to considerably violent in large earthquakes, through the ground. Ground shaking move buildings from side to side and up and down. The shaking that any structure experiences depends on how far it is from the fault and […]

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Linear Measurements in Surveying by Direct Method

Linear measurements in surveying can be performed by mainly three methods namely direct method, electromagnetic methods and optical methods. The direct method is the common method that employs a chain, tape or any other instrument to measure the linear distance. Also Read: – Electromagnetic Methods in Surveying Various methods coming under the direct method of […]

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Important Terms Used in Masonry Construction

Masonry is a widely used term in the field of construction. Some of the important terms related to masonry works that must be known by the construction professionals are discussed below. 1. Course in Masonry A course in a masonry structure is the horizontal layer of bricks or stones. 2. Bed in Masonry A bed […]

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Stone Masonry Construction – Materials and Classification

Stone masonry is a type of building masonry construction that uses stones and mortar. This construction technique is used for building foundations, floors, retaining walls, arches, walls and columns. The stones used for masonry construction are natural rocks. These natural rocks are cut and dressed into proper shape in order to use it in masonry […]

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Types of Masonry Construction Based on Material

A variety of materials combined with mortar of varying strength can be used for masonry construction. Some of the common materials used are brick, stones, concrete, veneer, gabion, etc. Some of the important masonry construction based on the material used are briefly explained. 1. Brick Masonry Construction Brick masonry construction makes use of first-class burnt […]

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Types of Seismic Control System in Building Structures

Different types of seismic control systems are used in earthquake-resistant design that serves the purpose of reducing the action of earthquake forces on the main structural system. Generally, there are three types of seismic control systems namely passive, active and hybrid seismic control systems. Each system is briefly explained in this article. 1. Passive Seismic […]

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What is the Effective Stress Principle in Soil Engineering?

The effective stress principle in soil engineering is one of the important theories put forward by Karl Terzaghi in the year 1936. It is the difference between total stress and pore water pressure. More features and determination of effective stress in the soil are explained briefly below. Effective Stress Principle The effective stress principle can […]

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What are the Contents of Construction Documents?

Construction documents are written, graphic, and pictorial documents prepared or assembled for describing and communicating the design, location, and physical characteristics of the elements of a project necessary for obtaining a building permit and administering the contract for its construction. Construction documents should also show the size, section and relative locations of structural members with […]

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What are Permanent and Temporary Works at Construction Sites?

Construction site works are generally classified into permanent site works and temporary site works. Permanent site works are required for the entire life span of the structure. For example, some retaining walls can be a permanent structure that is part of the design. However, temporary site works are needed for while to execute certain construction […]

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Standard Brick Dimensions Based on Different Codes

Brick dimensions is one of the most crucial parameters that need to be considered during the selection of bricks in order to ensure they fit with the design layout. Brick selection is decided based on the certain application in which the brick is used. Due to the fact that bricks are used in various constructions, different […]

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Cantilevered Beams and Trusses- Applications and Advantages

A cantilever is a rigid structural member such as beam fixed at one end to a commonly vertical support from which it protrudes. It can also be constructed with trusses or slabs or metal girder. When subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support. Cantilever construction allows overhanging structures without external bracing, in […]

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what is detailed design of structures?

Detailed design, which takes on and develops the approved conceptual design, is a stage where the design is refined and plans are set. The result of the detailed design is the complete and precise physical description of all parts of the structure (the blueprints) and how they are fit together. It also involves the investigation of […]

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Different Types of Base Isolators Used in Buildings

Different types of base isolation techniques are developed one after the other, each prepared for specific seismic conditions and structures. Some of the important base isolation systems used in buildings are elastomeric bearings and friction pendulum bearings. These are explained briefly in the article. Also Read: What is Base Isolation? 1. Elastomeric Bearing Elastomeric bearing […]

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What is Base Isolation System in Building Construction?

A base isolation system is a popular system implemented in a structure to protect it from the action of seismic forces. This system as base isolation bearings was developed by Dr. Bill Robinson in the 1970s in New Zealand. A base isolation system is used as a damage-resistant seismic design solution for both new and […]

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10 Types of Stones Used for Building Constructions

Many types of stones are available such as basalt, marble, limestone, sandstone, quartzite, travertine, slate, gneiss, laterite, and granite which can be used as construction materials. The stones used for building construction should be hard, durable, tough, and should be free from weathered soft patches of material, cracks, and other defects that are responsible for […]

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What is Bridge Pier? Types of Bridge Piers

A bridge pier is a type of structure that extend to the ground below or into the water. It is used to support bridge superstructure and transfer the loads to the foundation. The bridge piers can be constructed to be substantially attractive and strong in order to withstand both vertical and horizontal loads. It also […]

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